This essay will compare and contrast various perspectives that focus on individual attributes with those that focus on the aggregate characteristics of criminal activity. Criminological research has a long history of attempting to explain the causes of crime. Throughout its history there have been various theories or schools of thought that have attempted to capture the essence of this field of study. There were various theories espoused by some of the early pioneers of criminological theory. For example, Beccaria thought that crime occurred when the benefits of committing the crime exceeded the costs (Cullen & Agnew, 2011). Lombroso thought that the crime was caused or determined; placed much emphasis on biological deficiencies. He was a phrenologist, observing physical characteristics such as a large jaw and skull bumps to indicate criminal propensities (Cullen & Agnew, 2011). Lambroso's work laid the foundation for the school of positive thinking; implied that criminals have no choice in their criminal activity. Subsequent research also focused on individual trait attributes as they relate to criminality, but refined the use of more scientific methods to draw their conclusions. These studies were called micro-level theories because their concern was to identify how individual characteristics are related to their involvement in crime. These theories recognize that social factors interact with biological traits, which in turn can produce crime. Some of these traits include low verbal IQ, attention deficit disorder, risk seeking, and poor social and problem-solving skills (Cullen & Agnew, 2011). Data have suggested that to some extent criminality is inherited and that genes likely contribute to certain traits that favor criminality (Ellis & Walsh, 1997). Genetic theory suggests that certain genes may evolve that predispose an individual to take advantage of criminality. altruistic and cooperative behavior of others (Badcock, 1986) Heart rate is also believed to have an impact on criminal inclinations. There are studies that have found that a lower resting heart rate is associated with a higher crime rate. There has been a further finding that the prefrontal lobes may not function properly in the brains of criminally predisposed individuals (Rowe, 2002). Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) found that individual differences in self-control predispose some people to criminal activity. These above mentioned facts indicate that how individual traits affect the commission of crime. Although it has been recognized that individuals may have a biological predisposition to become criminals; however, some may still engage in very limited criminal activity if raised in loving and supportive family environments.